Planning and Organizing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Planning and Organizing - Assignment Example They also operate a mailing service, in which they offer product design, mailing list compilation, and actual mailing of materials. The firm recently began to market a line of apparel customized for industrial firms with printed company and personal identification. Planning Planning is considered as the central function of the management and pervades every action which a manger performs. The planning function tends to involve defining and setting goals and how to achieve them and integrate and coordinate them to reach the set goal (Sims, 9). Based on the information of the printing firm, the objective and goal of the firm would be to expand its business through its diversification strategy and aims to increase its turnover and enhance the organizational structure. Therefore to analyze the firm’s present and future situation, SWOT analyze a strategic planning method used to analyze the strength, weakness, opportunity and threats of the firm (Ferrel and Hartline, 122). Strength: The printing firm has a relevant experience of about 50years adding it to the list of strengths. The firm has adopted the diversification strategy both related field ad unrelated field seeking to achieve a competitive advantage. Adopted the low cost strategy which has resulted in profits for the firm The staff constitute of family members reducing the chance of fraud Sales is high and has a gross operating margin of 40% Weakness High competition with the direct sellers resulting in limited markup and volume the firm has been experiencing loss for the past 2 years, volume reduced to $3million from $5million The firm do not provide training programs to its staff Basic structural pattern is one of non cooperation and mistrust among employees and management Opportunity Mailing service has growth opportunity in the market and can be prime source of revenue and profit expansion in different market and products provide a better organization structure leading to motivation and efficient wo rking provide training programs Threats Competition in various field like printing, apparels, mailing from big firms Conflict in the organization Depressed economic climate Therefore based on the SWOT analyses it can be said that the firm aims to be among the top most printing firms in Baltimore and with its diversification strategy can capture the market share in respective market with its new and improved products. The firm to encourage effective and efficient work should provide training programs so that they are able to handle the work more sincerely and with more dedication. It has a growth opportunity in mailing serve and if utilize properly it has the potential to increase its revenue and create a brand name in the sector. The firm should use its strength to overcome its weakness and use the opportunity so to overcome the threats. Organizing The printing press constitute of 35 employees which includes family members also. The president do not provides the authority to take an y decisions to the vice president as he is not sure about their ability as well knowledge although they tend to have 5years of experience. The President can be said to have adopted the autocratic leadership style as he centralizes power and decision making and take the full responsibility and authority (Mehrotra, 7). Therefore based on the leadership style it can be said th

Representation of feminine nature in Helmut Newton and Lillian Bassman Dissertation

Representation of feminine nature in Helmut Newton and Lillian Bassman works - Dissertation Example Lillian Bassman and Helmut Newton are two of the greatest fashion photographers of the twentieth century. Each of them have used their own, specific techniques to achieve success in the field of photography, in particular female photography. The history and styles unique to each will be discussed below, in addition to relevant samples of their work. This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the works of Helmut Newton and Lillian Bassman and concurrently, compares their vision of females, their way of presenting them and how it influences the potential viewer. The first chapter of my final analysis will illustrate Helmut Newton’s works, his achievements and his representation of ‘feminine nature’. The second chapter contains a short biography of Lillian Bassman and an explanation of her photographic techniques and her perception of the female. Finally, the last chapter will sum up all the theories, photographic works, and perceptions as well as compare the commo n idea of the works shared between the photographers. NEWTON The female nude as fashion. A shot in which the form of a woman becomes in its own right a fashion statement. To use not a truly nude image but one in which a woman's body becomes a stylistic choice. This characterization can be said to be representative of the works of Helmut Newton; as well as Lillian Bassman, as exemplified by their work while at Harper's Bazaar. Bassman in particular was able to not only use her time at the magazine to advance her own prospects, but is credited to have advanced the careers of other fashion-notablies, such as Avedon, Faurer, and Frank. (VanZanten, 2010) Her monochromatic style is a art form she shared with Newton, yet others seemed to have found greater value in her Harper's Bazaar career than she herself; having destroyed 40 years of her own negatives and prints when fashion photography became less vogue, (or she perceived it as less vogue). While less self-destructive, Newton's mark o n the magazine also served an inspirational role, which - while less explicit than certain modern artists, he became a gatekeeper, or trail-blazer whose avant-garde efforts opened the door for others. The imagery Newton brought to the magazine mingled classic images of the female as a vessel for desire, along with an expressive fire kindled by a uniquely female drive, proactive intent - as will be discussed below. A cursory examination of Newton's style will allow for a semblance of the woman as a focal point for incidental beauty, yet with an underlying current of inner strength as revealed by the embrace of the full power of the feminine mystique. His work for the magazine carries the self-styled label 'porno-chic', and for the most extreme of feminist activists, his sort of visual provocation might carry the label 'anti-Christ', and warranted in the minds of some activists the defacing of a production with thrown paint. (Newton, 2002) On the other hand, Lillian Bassman uses compl etely different ways of attraction; she draws attention to the female body and how it can change the perception of the photograph. In a book by Liz Wells there are several debates, which introduce key concepts of photographic body. Solomon-Godeau suggests that ‘we need to consider not only how photographs present women’

Neurological Aspects of Pain

Neurological Aspects of Pain 1.1. Functional Properties of Nerve Fibres 1.1.1. Properties of Peripheral Somatic Nerves Peripheral somatic nerves consists generally of somatic-motor, autonomic-motor and sensible fibres. 1.1.1.1. Somatic-motor fibres for the striated musculature The cell bodys of somatomotor fibres for the striated musculature are always lying in the brainstem (12 pare cerebral nerves) or the fore horn of the whole spinal medulla. The stimulus runs from central to peripheral (efferent). The lateral cutaneous femoral nerve consists of sensible fibres and no motor fibres. The shiatic nerve consists of 20% motor fibres, 30% sensible, and 50% sympathetic fibres. The gluteal nerves consist of pure motor fibres, sympathetic fibres and no sensible fibres. 1,2 1.1.1.2. Autonomic-motor fibres for the smooth muscles of blood- and lymphatic vessels The autonomic-motor fibres for the smooth muscles of the blood and lymphatic vessels are of sympathetic origin. Venes are not innervated. They function by the musculare pump system and in some cases by valves. The cells bodies of the autonomic-motor fibres are situated in the lateral horn between C8-L2. They are termed: the centro-ganglionar neurons. All motor neurons, situated in the spinal medulla go via the fore horn to the peripheral nerve. It must be mentioned that all smooth muscles can contract without external innervation (for example: heart, gut). This is due to the intrinsic nerve system with is influenced by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. 3-5 1.1.1.3. Sensible fibres for somatic structures The sensible fibres for somatic structures originate from muscles, tendons, capsules, joints, ligaments and bones. Their cell bodies are lying in the spinal ganglions of the corresponding nerve (= afferent). 2,6 1.1.1.4. Sensible fibres for autonomic structures: blood- en lymphatic vessels The cell bodies of the sensible fibres for autonomic structures are situated in the spinal ganglions of the segments where the sympathetic neurons start (SI-joint: T11-L1). The peripheral autonomic nerve contains generally autonomic-motor and sensible fibres and serves for the innervation of organs. Glands are always dubble innervated (sympathetic and parasympathetic), except for the adrenals. 2 Examples: The femoral arterie contains sensible fibres which go to the spinal ganglions and arrive in the dorsal horn where connections exist, via intercalar neurons, with the origins of the sympathethic fibres of the levels T10-T11. Knee joint: is sensible innervated via the sciatic nerve (posterior side of the knee), but in the knee capsule, sensible fibres exist which connect via the femoral arterie the levels T10-T12. 1.1.2. Properties of Peripheral Autonomic Fibres Peripheral autonomic nerves consist of autonomic-motor and sensible fibres. They innervate organs and glands. 1.1.2.1. Viscero-sensible fibres The cell bodies of viscero-sensible nerve fibres are situated in the spinal ganglions of those segments from where the sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons start. Example: the pelvis organs: S2-S4 and/or TLJ (= thoracolumbar junction). The TLJ receives a lot of information. Some of those stimuli go via the nervous supply in the blood vessel wall. 2 1.1.2.2. Motor fibres for smooth muscles The parasympathetic primary cells are situated in the brain stem to the level of C2 and the lateral horn of S2-S4. The sympathetic origin is situated in the lateral horn of C8-L2. 2,7,8 1.1.3. Axoplasma Flow of the Axons Materials and substances are moved within the cytoplasm of all cells. In the axoplasm (= cytoplasm of neurons), structures such as the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, microtubules and neurofilaments likely take part of the axoplasmic transport mechanism. Perhaps the human movement plays a role in this intracellular motility 9. In the cytoplasm of nerve fibres nutrients and transmitters are moved. At the nerve ends vesicles are located, that continue the transport into the gap junction. The transport in the axoplasma is termed antidrome and orthodrome transport. Antidrome (antegrade) transport occurs from central to the periphery and orthodrome (retrograde) transport in the opposite direction.1,10,11 For the sciatic nerve the antidrome transport is rather fast (12 hours), the orthodrome transport is slower (48 hours). 1.1.3.1. Signal transfer of the peripheral nerve fibres Ion-channels and receptors play an important role in the signal transfer of the peripheral nerve fibres. The ion-channels are located on the extremities of the fibres. They make the transport for the neurotransmitters possible. Receptors are specified. Every cell has ÂÂ ± 1 million receptors. The gates of the ion-channels (mostly proteins) can be inhibitory or excitatory. The Swann-cells are spread over the axon and form de myelin sheet. The myelin sheets are interrupted by the knots of Ranvier. In the CNS they are termed glial cells. The glial cells have several functions. The myelin sheets have a certain thickness. Unmyelinated axons have Schwann-cells as well. In myelinated axons the stimulus progresses salutatory and in unmyelinated axons the stimulus progresses slowly. The signal transfer of the peripheral nerve fibres has 3 kinds of stimulus progress being chemical transport, electric stimuli progression and axoplasm flow. Chemical transport occurs at the nerve ends, and consists of neurotransmitters. The transport depends of the kind of ion-channel, the neurotransmitter and the receptor. Electric stimuli progress over the axon and occur by opening of the ion-channels stimulation the own nerve ends due to production of the neurotransmitters. The speed of transmission depends of the presence of a myelin sheet and the diameter of the fibres. The axoplasm flow of the neurotransmitter in axoplasma (= chemical) occurs in 2 directions. Sometimes the pain can occur 24 hours after injury! It can also be very slow (up to 48 hours) and be resposible for the delayed onset of pain. 1,11 1.1.3.2. Morphologic and functional classification of nerve fibres: Understanding pain phenomen the morphologic and functional properties of nerve fibres is important. In time several classification systems have been investigated and proposed. 1.1.3.3. Classifying axons according to their conduction velocity In the 1920s and 1930s, there was a virtual use of classifying axons according to their conduction velocity 13. Three main categories were discerned, called A, B and C fibres: C fibres are the smallest and slowest. Mechanoreceptors generally fall in category A. The A group is further broken down into subgroups designated: the a fibres: the fastest the b fibres the d fibres: the slowest The muscle afferents axons are usually classified into four additional groups: I: the fastest II, III and IV: the slowest, with subgroups designated by lower case roman letters. 1.1.3.4. Properties of the A-d, A-b sensors or type I en II fibres The A-a and A-b fibres have low threshold properties. They are low threshold afferents/efferents, they have a quick adaptation, are bi- or monosynaptic and unimodal (= mechanosensors: only sensible for mechanical stimuli). They cross the midline in the spinal medulla. The A-b provides information about normal pressure or strain tension and the A-a provides information about position changes of joints in space. They give information about the smooth touch and kinesaesthesis in the skin. 1.1.3.5. Properties of the A-d and C sensors or type III en IV fibres 1.1.3.5.1. The A-d sensors or type III fibres The A-d or type III fibres are selective and have a slightly higher threshold than the A-a and the A-b sensors. They have a longer adaptation time. After a pin prick the pain keeps going on for a time which is a specific property of the A-d sensors. They are multisynaptic and cross the midline in the spinal medulla. A-d sensors are polymodal. They provide information about mechanical stretch and pressure forces from normal to noxious. They give information about temperature from normal to noxious stimuli. From 36,5ÂÂ °C tot 42ÂÂ °C especially C-fibres are involved. From 36,5ÂÂ °C tot 38ÂÂ °C the A-d fibres are responsible. A quantity of those fibres is noxious. They are termed: nocisensors but not all. Some measure only normal temperatures and they become nocisensors in case of tissue injury. 11 1.1.3.5.2. The C sensors or type IV fibres The C or type IV fibres are selective and have a high till very high threshold. They are slow to very slow with a long adaptation time. They have tonic and continuous activity properties. They cross the midline in the medulla medulla and are polymodal. The C fibres measure the chemical consistence of tissues from normal to noxious. They measure temperature from normal till abnormal (= noxious). Some of those fibres are nocisensors but not all of them. Example: the sensibility of the knee consists of 80% normal sensibility sensors and 20% nocisensors. 11 1.1.3.5.3. Difference between nocisensor- stimulation and pain A nocisensor measures the damage of injured tissue. A nocisensor can but must not necessarily provoke pain. A part of the A-d and C-fibres are nocisensors. They measure the damage or the almost-damage (mechanic, temperature, chemical). Their noxious stimulation does not always lead to pain perception. Here fore the stimulus must attain the thalamus and cerebral cortex, otherwise there is no pain sensation. Not all nociceptory stimuli rise so high to the midbrain or cortex. A lot of stimuli extinguish in the spinal medulla, the ascending pathways or in the brainstem. The stimulus attains the pain centres when the intensity of one stimulus is sufficient or when summation occurs of several stimuli in parts of the dorsal horn. As well reflectory (unconscious) as cognitive (conscious) reactions occur and the nocisensors will provoke pain, in case of severe damage. Thus, not all nocisensors provoke pain but they can be considered as normal pain fibres. It is logic that if a nocisensor is s ufficiently stimulated it will provoke the sensation of pain. A-d en C fibres can give pain thats not only caused by the damage itself, but as a result of the damage as well. A pain feelin which is more intense than normally expected is termed hyperalgesia. For example, when ice is applied on the skin it hurts but ice applied on a burned skin does hurt even more. When punctuated stimuli are applied on the course of the sciatic nerve it normally hurts but in case of sciatica it hurts even more (= hyperalgesia). Hyperalgesia is hypersensitivity on a stimulus that normally hurts, due to over stimulation of the nocisensors. The A-a and A-b fibres normally do not give pain, because they are not nocisensors. They register only normal values. Under certain circumstances they provoke pain. This happens in case of injured tissues or nerves or when the nocisensors become active. When nocisensors already give pain as a result of a decreased threshold, then the A-a and A-b fibres become sensiti ve as well. A light pressure on the pain area will also be painful. A low pressure- or strain force on the skin, tendons or muscles normally provoke no pain, but in case of damage it will well provoke pain. This is termed allodynia. Allodynia is pain that is caused by a stimulus that normally doesnt hurt due to an increased sensitivity of the the A-a and A-b fibres. This phenomon gives an opportunity to test the pain perception of the nervous system by use of pricking or brushing tests on the painfull area. There is a difference between nocisensor stimulation and the pain interpretation. 11 Table 5: Difference between nocicensor stimulation and pain. By use of selective stimulation the A-a and A-b fibres can be stimulated without that the A-d and C-fibres become active. This is caused by the low threshold of the A-a and A-ÃÆ'Ã… ¸ fibres compared with the A-d and C-fibres. A-d en C-fibres cant be stimulated selectively by use of mechanical stimuli because at the moment those fibres are stimulated; already the A-a and A-ÃÆ'Ã… ¸ fibres are active. When those become active, all fibres were stimulated. Also in case of nociception all those fibres are active. Selective stimulation can be used during TENS application or during active en passive mobilisations applied under the pain threshold level. 11 1.1.4. Hierarchy of the Nervous System The information processing in the nervous system happens on 4 levels. As well as the peripheral nerve ends, the dorsal horn, the brainstem and sub cortical and cortical levels are involvend. 1,7,11 1.1.4.1. The peripheral nerve ends The peripheral nerve ends are responsible for the uptake of information. The receptors are modulated by the state of surrounding tissue and the condition of the peripheral nerve. 1.1.4.2. The dorsal horn of the spinal medulla The dorsal horn modulates the incoming signals and is influenced by the state of the dorsal horn and the quantity and kind of gathered stimuli. 1.1.4.3. The brainstem The brainstem provides the primary responses with autonomic and hormonal modulations as a response to stimulation. 1.1.4.4. Sub cortical and cortical levels The sub cortical and cortical area provides the conscious cognitive and psycho-emotional modulation. The processing of the information and response on stimulation depends on the hierarchic manner, but always occurs with a total integration of the whole nerve system. 1.1.4.5. The Archi-, Paleo- and Neo level of the nervous system The nervous system can be ordered depending on a hierarchic manner in an archi, paleo and a neo level. 7 1.1.4.5.1. The Archi level The archi level consists of the gray matter (dorsal horn) of the spinal medulla, the ascending multisynaptic pathways in and around the gray matter, the medial pathways of the anterolateral quadrant, the mid part of the cerebellum and the brainstem (reticular formation). It is responsible for the most automatic movements after Hughlings Jackson. 7 1.1.4.5.2. The Paleo level The paleo level consists of the ascending pathways of the anterolateral quadrant, the descending pathways in the ventro-lateral quadrant, the hormonal and vestibular nuclei in the brainstem, the hypothalamus, certain parts of the cerebellum and the limbic system. Humoral influences from the liquor can influence (endofins) the sensibility of the pain system. 7 1.1.4.5.3. The Neo level The neo level consists of the dorsal ascending pathways, the dorso-lateral and ventral descending pathways, the cerebellar cortex, the lateral thamalus nuclei and the cerebral cortex. It is responsible for the cognitive mental processes, accurate skills and least automatic functions. 7 1.1.4.6. Phylogenetic development of the nervous system The phylogenetic development of the nervous system differs in time for the different levels. The archi-system is the oldest and is identical to that of the lower vertebrates. It is completely developed when born. The paleo-system is younger than the archi-system. It is identical of that of the lower vertebrates but only half developed when born. The neo-system is het youngest system in the phylogenetic evolution. It is much more developed than that of the lower vertebrates and not developed when born. 7 1.1.4.7. Functional properties of the different hierarchic systems of the nervous system Specific properties can be indicated to the different hierarchic levels of the nervous system. 1.1.4.7.1. Functional properties of the Archi level The archi level consists of C and A-d fibres. It is a relatively slow and tonic (continuous) working system that stands for the basic needs of life e.g.: basic survival or most automatic movements and autonomic functions such as basic tonus regulation in the brainstem and medial cerebellum. It is responsible for primary pain modulation e.g.: redraw reflex and increased tonus. 1.1.4.7.2. Functional properties of the Paleo level The paleo level consists especially of A-d, A-b, and C-fibres as well. It is a relative quicker system but also has tonic activity properties. The paleo level supports the archi-level by use of hormonal adaptation and psycho-emotional adaptation. It takes part of the autonomic function (hormonal function), fight/flight reactions in case of stress and pain and posture regulation (static posture balance). 1.1.4.7.3. Functional properties of the Neo level The neo level consists especially of A-a and A-b fibres and is very quick with phasic responses on stimulation. It analyses the information of the archi- and paleosystem and is guided by use of cognitive responses. The least automatic movements are guided and conscious movements. It regulates the dynamic posture balance and automatisation of movements. It is responsible for the organ sense perception and dissociated movement. 1.1.4.7.4. Interaction and control of the different hierarchic systems in the nervous system General principles of interaction among the different hierarchic systems in the nervous system can be summarized as follows. The paleo-system controls the archi-system and guides it. The neo-level controls the archi- and paleo system and guides both. The neo-level surrounds literally the archi and paleo level. The grey matter is situated medially in the nervous system medial in spinal medulla, the white matter laterally. The neo-system keeps the paleo-level and archi-level in harness. The hierarchic construction of the nervous system can be seen as a gate control system that exists on all levels. 7 1.1.4.7.5. Gate-control in the peripheral nerve fibres Axo-axonal connections between lower and higher fibres exist. The A-a and A-b fibres give off collaterals in the dorsal horn. The A-a and A-b attain the spinal medulla faster and prepare it for the arrival of A-d and C-stimuli. Selective stimulation of higher fibres (A-a and A-b fibres) inhibits the working of the fibres of lower order (A-d and C-fibres). 1.1.4.7.6. Gate control in the dorsal horn At the level of the dorsal horn interaction and control mechanisms exist and this phenomen known as Gate-control in the dorsal horn is also known as the gate theory of Melzack en Wall. The outlets of the A-a en A-b neurons shunt on the outlets of the A-d and C-neurons and their neurotransmitters close the ion-channels of these. The descending pathways of the paleo- and neosystem do the same and work on the interneurons and inhibit the A-d and C-neurons. 11 1.1.4.7.7. Gate-control in the brain The cortical pathways control the sub cortical pathways. They inhibit the brainstem reflexes. Conscious movements and intentions inhibit unconscious tonic reflexes (Example: relaxation). The cortical and sub cortical pathways regulate a directed and conscious life. The brainstem provides the autonomic support. This is all controlled by neurotransmitters. The perception of nociceptive pain not only involves the sensation transmitted and regulated by peripheral and central neurons, but is also affected by higher brain functions. 11 1.1.4.7.8. The uptake of nociception information A-d and C-fibres are the only fibres that can registrate nociception. The A-d fibres are quicker and give epicritic pain when the stimulus is attaining the pain centres. Epicritic pain means precise localisation with immediate redraw reflexes. The kind of pain is described as stabbing, boring, tearing or pulling. The impulses of the C-fibres attain the pain centres much later. They give protopathic pain, which is a continuous pain. That pain is not precisely located. Protopathic pain is burning, booring of a kind and continues much longer. It goes together with autonomic reactions, for expample: oedema. 11 1.1.5. The dorsal horn of the spinal medulla 1.1.5.1. General survey of the classification of the grey matter of the spinal medulla The grey matter is divided in the 10 layers of Rexed. This system is named by Rexed who discovered that the neurons in the dorsal horn where organised in layers depending on their function. Every layer is present in different segments and forms rostro-caudal nuclear columns. The counting happens from the dorsal horn to the anterior horn. Every layer is in contact with another by interneurons and dendrites. Layer I and II: nocisensory outlets of both: musculo-skeletal and visceral structures Layer III: intersegmental ascending pathways (dorsal proprium tract) and outlets to the spinothalamic tract (anterolateral quadrant) Layer IV: exclusive nocisensors from the musculoskeletal system Layer V-VI: fibres arriving from the nocisensors of the skin and viscera Layer VII: lateral horn: interneurons and sympathetic neurons Layer VIII en IX: motoneurons for musculoskeletal system Layer X: hormonal neurons In all levels descending pathways arrive from diverse levels of the brain. 1.1.5.2. Somatotopic ordering of nocisensors in the dorsal horn In layer I-II the nocisensors of viscera and musculo-skeletal structures are laying next to each other. They are ordered in a sagittal way from medial to lateral. The medial structures project medial and lateral structures project laterally. In layer V the nocisensors of certain skin areas are lying next to the nocisensors of viscera. Those are ordered in horizontal layers. For example: the organ-nocisensors under the level of the diafragm are lying next to the skin sensors from Th7-Th10. 1.1.5.3. Segmental interactions in the dorsal horn Normal reactions in musculo-skeletal influence the nocisensoric function. Outlets of nocisensors stimulate interneurons. There exists interaction with the spinothalamic tract and interaction with motoric anterior horn cells (somato-somatic relation). Normal reactions in musculo-skeletal nocisensoric function and influence the outlets of nocisensors stimulate the interneurons causing interaction with spinothalamic tract and with the sympathetic lateral horn cells (viscero-visceral relation). 11 Abnormal reactions can occur when the outlets of nocisensors infect the other nocisensors. Those react in turn causing interaction between motoric and visceral responses. This results in a somato-visceral relation, a somato-sympathetic relation and a viscero-somatic relation. 1.1.5.4. The Importance of Wide Dynamic Range Neurons In layer III, wide dynamic range neurons (WDR-neurons) exist. 21 Those WDR-neurons are interneurons that connect all the A-d en C-fibres from the dorsal horn. They project on the spinothalamic tract (antero-lateral quadrant). The ventral pathways go to the reticular formation, medial thalamus and the medial limbic system. The lateral pathways go to the lateral thalamus and cortex. They connect all visceral and motoric stimuli (= summation) with as consequences that motoric and visceral stimuli are sent together to the brain. The brain receives segmental information and no individual information. The brain can project pain to segmental connected structures. This is termed referred pain. Examples are: the stomach ulcer can provoke inter scapular pain or cardiac complaints and can give ulnaris nerve pain. Pain does not always indicate the exact location and origine. Anamnesis, assessment and clinical reasoning are very important. 1.1.5.5. Inhibition and excitation of the dorsal horn Inhibition and excitation of impulses in the dorsal horn can be caused by outlets of peripheral nerves. For example the A-a and A-b can inhibit the A-d and C fibres (pre-synaptic inhibiton). The outlets of the descending pathways can influence the the nerve ends and the interneurons (postsynaptic inhibition/excitation). The interneurons themselves can cause pre- or postsynaptic inhibition/excitation. Summation of stimuli defines the state of the dorsal horn. If a segment is excited or inhibited depends on the som of stimuli. Nocisensory impulses of the peripheral nerves always excite the dorsal horn. Summation of exciting nocisensoric impulses is defined by spatial and temporal facilitation. Temporal facilitation means the timing; spatial facilitation, the diverse structures that are involved. Impulses of A-a and A-b neurons act generally inhibiting. The impulses from the descending pathways can act in both ways. They are also regulated by temporal and spatial factors. The sum of sti mulating and inhibiting stimuli defines the state of the dorsal horn. An excitated dorsal horn provokes a lot of irradiating pain. 1.2. Assessment of Primary and Secondary Hyperalgesia 1.2.1. Definition of primary hyperalgesia Changes in the local sensibility of the afferent neurons as a result of a lesion in the peripheral tissues are termed hyperalgesia. In case of an increased sensibility of the A-a and A-b fibres the primary hyperalgesia is termed allodynia. In case of an increased sensibility of the A-d and C fibres the primary hyperalgesia is termed hyperalgesia. The lesion in the peripheral tissue can be of inflammation or neurogenic origin. 22 1.2.1.1. Pathophysiology of primary hyperalgesia In case of tissue injury bradykinin and ATP is produced at the site of lesion. Those mediators stimulate the blood- and lymphatic vessels, the mast cells and nociceptors. In the circulation inflammatory mediators are released aswell as histamine, serotonin, NGF, leucocytes, trombocytes and others. C-fibres released neuropeptides such as SP and CGRP. Those modulate and stimulate the release of other inflammatory mediators aswell. All those mediators are termed the inflammatory soup. Those mediators also stimulate the C-fibres which causes a vicious circle. The sympathetic nerve terminals are stimulated by inflammation and release noradrenalin which also stimulates the C-fibres. The sympathetic coupling between C-fibres and sympathetic end neurons occurs. The presence of inflammatory mediators decreases the threshold of all types of endneurons with as a result local allodynia and hyperalgesia. The allodynia and hyperalgesia can spread in the surrounding tissue, by stimulating the surro unding neurons. This is termed the flair zone. 22,23 Figure 16: Consequences of tissue injury: the inflammatory soup. 14 1.2.1.2. Primary hyperalgesia and the dorsal horn The A-d mechanoreceptors and nociceptors, and C-nocisensors stimulate the dorsal horn of somatic connected segments. As a consequence a temporary wind-up can occur. A wind-up is an over stimulation that can hold on for 72 hours. A refectory muscular reaction occurs around the lesion aswell. As a result the stimulation via the ascending pathways (antero-lateral quadrant) to the brain increases. Protopatic pain (quick, stabbing pain) followed by epicritical pain (boring, continuous pain) occurs. The brainstem regulates the autonomic reactions further such as sympathetic, hormonal, and emotional. The C-nocisensors give stimuli to the sympathetic connected segments. As a result the sympathetic system stimulates the C-endneurons (= sympathetic coupling) and vasoconstriction on the arterioles and lymphatic vessels. 20,24 1.2.1.3. Primary hyperalgesia and nerve injury When compressed inflammation occurs as prescribed above. In case of long standing injury, an ectopic injury occurs. This can be located on different locations on the peripheral nerve with the result that hyperalgesia and allodynia occurs on the course of the nerve, the connected dermatomes and this from the nerve root! In the spinal ganglion of the nerve, the sympathetic endneurons grow round the nerve cells with the occurrence of basket formations as a result. Consequently sympathetic maintained pain (SMP) occurs, also termed causalgia. This phenomon can continue for 7 to 10 weeks after the lesion but can also continue afterwards. 10 25 To summarize we can state that inflammation provokes a local hyperalgesia and allodynia, which spreads over the flair zone. Locally a vicious circle between the inflammatory soup and C-fibres takes place and sympathetic coupling between sympathetic end-neurons and C-fibres occurs. This continues until the tissue heals. Normally the medulla reacts with a temporary wind-up and a normal stimulus-response reaction. In case of neurogenic injury, causalgia may occur and sensitisation of the dorsal horn is possible. 22 1.2.1.4. Clinical pain assessment in case of primary hyperalgesia During the pain assessment, in case of primary hyperalgesia, when brushing or by use of punctuate stimuli the following properties are local allodynia and hyperalgesia restricted to the flair zone. In case of a nerve injury the flair zone is restricted to the course of the nerve root. Local sympathetic reactions occur when inflamed but are restricted in time. In case of allodynia and hyperalgesia when brushing and applying punctuated stimuli on the course of the nerve or a part of it, sympathetic reactions in the dermatome of the nerve can occure aswell. 22 1.2.2. Definition of Secondary Hyperalgesia An increased sensibility of all types of nerve fibres that continues outside the flair zone of the original lesion, linked to the course of the hyperalgesia and allodynia around the tissue, is termed secondary hyperalgesia. 22 1.2.2.1. Pathophysiology of secondary hyperalgesia When tissue is injured, nociceptors stimulate the interneurons by use of neurotransmitters such as SP, CGRP, NO, Ca, etc. The A-a and A-b neurons provide inhibiting neurotransmitters and the descending pathways give exciting or inhibiting mediators. The WDR-neurons receive al those impulses and send them to the spino-thalamic tract. WDR-neuron receptors differ. Some open ion-channels using inhibiting neurotransmitters, others open ion-channels using exciting neurotransmitters depending on the kind of receptor. If the stimulus acts inhibiting or exciting depends on the quantity of the opened inhibiting- or exciting ion-channels. In case of secondary hyperalgesia, more excitatory stimuli exist and insufficient inhibiting ways are activated. The WDR-neurons will work exiciting as well because of the fact they do not only activate the spino-thalamic pathways but also on the incoming stimulating neurons. As a result a vicious circle occurs in the dorsal horn. This provokes a decreased thr eshold of the present neurons. The sensors are also stimulated by the dorsal horn and not only by the local lesion. They become sensitized over their whole course with the consequence that the central hyperalgesia is linked to the lesion. When the local lesion is healing, the central allodynia will also disappear. Hyperalgesia is not as much linked to the course of the lesion but can last longer. Its origin is mostly caused by temporal and spatial summation of exciting stimuli. 22 1.2.2.2. Clinical pain assessment in case of secondary hyperalgesia During the pain assessment, when touching (brushing) and applying punctuate stimuli local hyperalgesia en allodynia and extending hyperalgesia and allodynia can be observed. When the pain occurs outsite the spinal column area the touching (brushing) and applied punctuate stimuli starting from the lesion and over the dermatome near by. The application must be enlarged to the neighbouring dermatomes and also to the corresponding segments of the spine. Always compare with the opposite side. Differentiate allodynia and hyperalgesia. 22 In case of primary hyperalgia the allodynia and/or hyperalgesia is restricted to the lesion area and flair zone. The allodynia disappears before the hyperalges

Shakespeares Julius Caesar :: Plays William Shakespeare Caesar Essays

Shakespeare's Julius Caesar "A talent for drama is not a talent for writing, but is an ability to articulate human relationships"- Gore Vida. This is certainly true for William Shakespeare, on of the greatest writers of all time. He wrote such dramas like Romeo and Juliet, Macbeth, Hamlet and Othello. Julius Caesar is no different. His ability to relate to human nature by using drama accurately distinguishes Julius Caesar from the rest by creating suspense, eagerness and tension. Act III Scene II is an especially important part to the play. Brutus I explaining got the crowd why Caesar was slain "as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him" (ll. 30-31) and "Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more" (ll. 21-22). This quote proves and summarizes Brutus' point in his speech. To achieve his goals, Brutus' oratory techniques were simple, logical, and rational. Brutus' speech is very formal, controlled and it seems that all of the sentences are perfectly balanced. Although he did a very good job at explaining to the confused crowd that murdering Caesar was for the good of Rome, he still had not won them over yet. After he explained himself and his purpose, the people were reluctant to believe him, yet there were convinced for only a short while. Antony has sworn not to attack the conspirators, although he intends to. This creates more tension within the plot by adding layers of opposition. In Antony's speech, he paints a different picture of Caesar "HE hath brought many captives home to Rome/ Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill/ Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?" (ll.80-82). Antony continues by stating, "I thrice presented him a kingly crown/ Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition?" (ll. 87-89). He asks the people if they consider this ambitious, obviously implying it was not, because Caesar's deeds were for the good of Rome, not for Caesar himself. This art of persuasion is able to move the mob. All at once, they discard "noble Brutus" and listen to Antony who is a "plain blunt man". Clearly wooed by his impressive oration, the mob alters the fate of the conspirators, adding more suspense and drama to the plot. During the whole scene, it teases us leaving us on the edge waiting for the conclusion. The introduction of two characters adds suspense in Act II. Calphurnia, Caesar's wife, tries to convince him to stay at home. Being persistent she is able to convince him "Do not go forth today: call it my fear/ That keeps you in the house, and not your own" (Scene

Gym Visit

Visiting Local My Local Gym Every person in the world would like to have a perfect body including myself. In order to have a healthy and a strong body, I would need to consider going to a gym to work out. Before going to the gym I did not knew of what to expect of a gym. Certainly, I would expect a wide selection of equipment available. I would enjoy a well-educated staff who knows everything I would want to know about working out. The Bally Total Fitness that just turned into LA Fitness, is a perfect match for me. I would definitely enjoy working out at the LA Fitness gym. The closest gym to my neighborhood was LA Fitness. This gym has six different club amenities and features. It starts at a reasonable price for working out, a price you cannot deny to become a healthy person. When I entered into LA Fitness I knew to expect a good environment for training and physical activities. At the LA Fitness gym they provide the members with an enormous amount of equipment. Throughout my tour with Monica, the tour instructor, she informed me that there are various amount of duplicity equipment for manageable workouts. For example, some equipment that I seen where treadmills, stationery bicycles, bench press, dung bells, medicine balls etc. All equipment found inside the gym is up to date and easy to handle. The work out machines informs you how to use them and lets you know what parts of your body you will be working out on. The best part of LA Fitness is the helpful trainers that make you lead to your goal. Working out with a personal trainer brings out good benefits to club members. All trainers designed a customized workout plan for each individual member. The workout plan has an ongoing motivation and supporters the member. All LA Fitness member received one hour fitness assessment before going in your own way. Having a trainer helps you work out effectively to attain your goal. Your trainer also shows you personally how the exercise machine is properly used and as well as teaching you the main principal of the workout that it is being performed. For better results for your own health trainers are there to pace you and keep you from not over doing the exercise. You have the opportunity of being inform from a personal trainer to aware you from your strengths and weakness. With a variety of different occupational centers to take advantage. To set a pace and a weekly routine you can choose from various events and relaxation options. You can choose from running in treadmills to relaxing in sauna or swimming your stress away. For comfortable workout you can also join in groups to follow a special routine provided by a trainer. Some group fitness classes that are provided in this facility are kickboxing, yoga, zumba, body conditioning, and cardio jam. Fitness groups are available from 7am through 8:15p. m from Sunday through Saturday. If you have a child and you have your workout routine set to a certain time day care is provided with an additional charge of $10. 00. The day care at LA Fitness has a schedule from Monday-Friday from 8:00 a. m. until 1:00 p. m. and 4:00 p. m. – 9:00 p. m. Saturday 8am until noon. The LA Fitness gym has its operating hours as followed Monday through Thursday from 5 a. . until midnight, Friday from 5 a. m. until 10 p. m. , and Saturday and Sunday from 6 a. m. through 8p. m. To join the gym has different pricing start from $9. 95 for one person for one week with no Initiation fee. No contract needed to get started and you pay as you go. Additional charge for certain amenities, such as racquetball, kids club, personal training, and juice bar. La fitness is a good environme nt to look up to and enjoy being part of with a various amount of different equipment to use and different fitness groups. In conclusion, La Fitness would be a great starting point towards a healthy life style. With having a gym full of new exercise machines and trainers on the side giving you good advice toward your exercise. Trainers will always support and motivate you to attain your healthy goal. After having a good workout you can always help yourself to enjoy the comfortableness of a sauna. The gym would always be open throughout the day and night to help you release some stress. It is an inexpensive opportunity for you to get in shape and start feeling healthy.

Comm 215 Week 1 Persuasive Essay

Persuasive Essay Comm/215 What if your mother suddenly has a terrible heart attack and now needs open heart surgery. Picture your son or daughter getting into car wreck and needs an emergency blood transfusion. Imagine a sibling having leukemia, and needs regular blood transfusions to survive. Not exactly what you want to think about on a Sunday afternoon, but these are the harsh realities of the world we live in. Many of you may have experience with these tragedies, and lost. If your thinking â€Å"I wish I knew of a way to help† well there is a way. With the simple donation of blood, platelets or plasma, you could save the life of a loved one or a complete stranger. There are many reasons why a person would require blood from a donor, car accidents, serious burns, and people with cancer, leukemia, heart, and liver diseases. A person dying from a failed organ may have to give up a transplant from lack of blood to help with the transfusion. It is estimated that 4. 5 million Americans will need blood this year. Of the Thirty Seven percent of Americans able to donate each year and only Ten percent actually do. This leaves America’s blood supply dangerously low. Only healthy able bodied people can donate blood, this also limits the number of people who can donate. Donated blood can be stored for up to forty-two days. There are several different types of blood A, B, AB and O each type can be positive or negative. Some blood types can only accept blood from the same type, making it very scary if that type hasn’t been donated. For example the O positive blood type is the universal donor, but O positive can only receive from another O positive donor. The average blood transfusion needs three pints of blood. Blood cannot be made or harvested, so donation is the only way to get blood. Just one blood donation made can save up to three human lives. After all the facts you have just received I am very hopeful that you will consider donating blood. You may want to know how to give blood; well let me shed some more light on the subject. You must be seventeen years of age and weigh at least 110 pounds and healthy. The donation last about fifteen minuets, but you may be required to stay in the facility for up to an hour this just ensures you have no ill effects from the donation, like dizziness or nausea. About one pint of blood is taken during the donation process; any fluid loss is replaced after twenty-four hours. There are some restrictions to giving blood, if you have lived or visited in certain countries you cannot give blood. The donation center near you will have all of the required information on these circumstances. So you see the donation process is safe and easy and most of you could be saving someone’s life. There are some who oppose the donation and receiving of blood from others. Jehovah’s Witnesses feel it is against there religion to ingest, donate, or accept blood. There is also a ban on gay men being able to give blood. This ban is based upon the beliefs that gay men are more likely to have the AIDS virus. There has recently been talk of lifting the ban if the donor has not had sexual relations in at least ten years. As in most issues or controversial subjects what some people feel as â€Å"right† others could see it as wrong, thankfully we live in a country that allows us to be speak our minds. I’m sure if the time came we would all expect that help would be forthcoming and available to anyone in need. But there are so many of us who don’t donate blood, out of lack of knowledge, or fear. Just think on how much peace of mind you could have if everyone donated blood. There would be no shortages, no possibility that a loved one would go without care due to a shortage of blood. I urge you to consider donating blood, to speak your friends and family about the importance of donating. You could be the one to save the next life, maybe even your own. Citations America's Blood Centers. (2007). Retrieved from http://www. americasblood. org/go. cfm? do=page. view=12 New Mexico Donor Services. (). Retrieved from http://www. donatelifenm. org/religiousviews. htm The Periscope Post. (). Retrieved from http://www. periscopepost. com/2011/04/should-gay-men-be-allowed-to-donate-blood/

economics of healthcare in the uk essays

economics of healthcare in the uk essays Good health is an important factor to an individuals welfare. It is an essential prerequisite for the enjoyment of life. For this reason the importance of healthcare to governments is great and vast amounts of resources are allocated to healthcare, for example in the UK healthcare equates for 6% of GNP. Some argue that Healthcare is a social issue rather than economic but the allocation of scarce resources and the inelastic demand for healthcare lends it self to economic analysis. Equitable allocation of a commodity is one in which everyone receives a minimum standard and quantity. So in terms of full equality in the society everyone should consume the commodity equally. In healthcare this argument becomes complicated, should everyone receive a minimum standard of healthcare? Or should everyone get the best healthcare available? The truth is that hospital buildings, doctors and medical equipment all take up resources. The best standard of healthcare could only be given if all of the governments resources were allocated to the provision of health. This would be a foolish thing to do, as other commodities would not be produced which may be detrimental to health and other aspects of life. Healthcare is different from all other products in that the (supplier) doctor knows more about it than the (consumer) patient. Consumers can distinguish between two types of product and choose the one, which gives them greatest utility but with health care the patient is not educated enough about medicine to choose between two treatments and must therefore go with what the doctor recommends. This imbalance of knowledge gives the healthcare industry suppliers monopoly power. A healthcare supplier could lower the standard of service and not fear loss of customers. A doctor may also recommend a treatment that is costly and therefore will bring in higher profit for himself without the ...

Free 1-month Trial of LinkedIn Job Seeker Premium - Expires March 29, 2011

Free 1-month Trial of LinkedIn Job Seeker Premium - Expires March 29, 2011 I just got word that LinkedIn is offering a free trial of its Job Seeker Premium service.   Heres a short article I wrote about that service.   Job Seekers:   Have you heard about LinkedIns Job Seeker Premium? I encourage you to take advantage of this offer and explore the benefits of the service.   Offer expires March 29, so act fast! I do not get any payment for referring people to this service.   I just think its a great opportunity to get organized and increase contact with recruiters. Remember to mark your calendar so that if you do not want to continue the service you cancel before your month is up! And please report in the comments any experiences, positive or negative, youve had with Job Seeker Premium. FREE TRIAL OFFER Category:Archived ArticlesBy Brenda BernsteinMarch 24, 2011 1 Comment The Essay Expert says: February 8, 2012 at 9:24 am Sorry Ashok, this offer has expired! However LinkedIn does offer a free trial from time to time, so watch your inbox! Log in to Reply

Analysis of Whodunit- the Media

Movies can pressure children to become more hostile as a person. Maggie Cutler analyzes in her essay, â€Å"Whodunit- The Media? †, how media affects children, demonstrating that children who are involved in violent media are more susceptible to practice it. The Senate Judiciary Committee led by Orrin Hatch explains in Cutler’s essay how television’s accountability is highly important: â€Å"‘Television alone is responsible for 10 percent of youth violence. † According to statistics, there were 250 murders and 12,100 violent crimes, which entailed by mentioning if Batman Beyond never played, these crimes would never have been completed (684). Parents need to discuss the media with their child and explain to them that most of the stories and plots they watch on television are mostly fiction and they are exaggerated for show. Once parents have a talk with their child, the child will be able to understand what they are watching (Cutler 688). Cutler continues, â€Å"The APA adds that parental guidance along with reducing kids’ exposure to graphic violence can help keep them out of the correctional system (687). The reason kids tend to become aggressive while they are exposed to influential media is because they mix up the difference between reality and fantasy. In time, children will find out the difference between both. Cutler states, â€Å"Kids understand early that cartoon violence is a joke, not a model. Even wrestling, once kids figure out that it’s staged, gets processed differently from, say, a schoolyard beating† (689). It is vital to not allow children to become violent because the more they are exposed to negatively powerful content, the more likely they are to keep practicing those actions. Cutler explained, â€Å"Several studies have shown that violent boys tend to watch more TV, choose more violent content, and get more enjoyment out of it† (686). There was a study done by Stanford headed by Thomas Robinson and the objective of the study was to lower the use of media for third and fourth graders and study the results. The study lasted for six months and the children had in-class instruction. Cutler clarifies, â€Å"†¦kids used media about 30 percent less than usual. And, they found, verbal and physical aggression levels subsequently dropped 25 percent on average† (688). This all supports the fact that if aggressive kids who minimized the amount of exposure to media, their manners and conduct would progress. According to Garbarino in Maggie Cutler’s essay, he explains how he would like the topic of media violence to be studied publicly as a health problem (686). Media violence is such an important topic in childrens’ lives that it cannot be ignored. The American Psychological Association’s Commission on Violence and Youth (APA) calculated that kids who are pressured into violence due to the media, can be assisted with what they explain to be early intervention. Once interventionists are aware of the problem, they can instruct children how to come up with a solution to any disagreement calmly and maturely (687). The author, Maggie Cutler, expressed how much of a complex issue and topic media violence was. Cutler asked many questions regarding childrens’ personal life and family issues which make a good point of why she doubts some of the reasons behind the results of studies. Cutler asks: â€Å"Do temperamentally violent kids seek out shows that express feelings they already have, or are they in it for the adrenaline boost? Do the sort of parents who let kids pig out on gore tend to do more than their share of other hurtful things that encourage violent behavior? † (686). But, referring back to the study of the third and fourth graders, this study gave individuals the reason to not doubt studies and persist the attention on kids who are affected by media violence in order to further answer any questions or doubts. Cutler explains how much children are influenced by aggressive media and they become more vulnerable to expressing their anger. The media contains so much content that children occasionally confuse it with reality and fantasy. That is why it is very critical that parents sit down with their kids and explain the meaning of some shows so that later the child would not act out what he/she had seen on the television. There have been plenty of studies that have proven to help children with aggressiveness in their life due to media violence. Studies have also proven that children can get salvaged from their anger and are taught how to resolve conflicts in a calmer manner. Media violence is a very crucial topic and it cannot be ignored like many citizens have done already. Now is the time to help children and families who are struggling with the after effects of media violence.

Advanced financial planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Advanced financial planning - Essay Example Everyone has heard this word and knows about it. It simply means that money fetches money. The rate at which it fetches is known as interest. The rate is measured in percentage. Surely, higher the rate, larger the benefit flows to you. Understanding Effective and Nominal Interest Rates.Let us understand the difference between actual and nominal interest rate. Supposing your credit card company charges you interest of 2.5% per month. That means that nominal interest per year is 30 percent; however, effective interest rate is something else and can be calculated as,Effective interest rate= (1+ i/n)n -1 (Effective and Nominal†¦)Where, i is nominal interest per year and n is number of periods of compounding. In our case, i=30% or 0.30 and n=12 Effective interest rate= (1+0.3/12)12 -1= (1.025)12 -1 =1.378-1=37.8% It means that though the company informs you about charging 30 percent nominal interest; in real terms, they are charging you at the rate of 37.8 percent.Compounding: This i s also known by most but understood and grasped by few. Compounding of the money is the most fascinating phenomena that bring enormous benefit to you. Do you know that the compounding has a very important dimension in terms of time? Effect of the money fetching money increases manifold when it works for a longer time.The biggest hurdle that haunts most of the people in the life when they start investment is its smallness. Every big thing initially starts small. The time, energy, and efforts put at the beginning do not seem to justify small returns that any business or investment may offer. People get first thought in the mind "For such a small return should I devote my time and spare the money, which otherwise can better be utilized to get more enjoyment in life." Quick answer surfaces, "Sacrifices are manifold compared to the benefits." The thought of this kind wins over the future benefits that may accrue after a few years. Thus, the person tends to postpone a small but a significant beginning, which is capable of transforming his or her fortune. This issue has to be understood thoroughly before it really happens with you stopping your small beginning for big gains in the future. The point to be noted here is that every tycoon or for that matter every big investor always starts small-- as small as you can ever think of but with the passage of time and their perseverance they become big. I am reminded of an ancient story, which I cannot r esist sharing with you. Once there lived a painter who fell upon such tough times that he was unable to earn

Reaction paper - James Weldon Johnson Personal Statement

Reaction paper - James Weldon Johnson - Personal Statement Example The ex-colored man is a complex character but very human. The narrative, told in first person, allows the reader to see and feel through the character. It makes the narration very real and, in fact, it pulls the reader in understanding the struggles of the blacks, and how the African American community behaves similar to the Whites. Although of a different color, we have the same dreams as they have, to have economic stability, to have independence and freedom, to improve our social status. We are no different than them, and this is one pressing point of the story. The only difference between the two races is the existing racial block, the very same reason that the ex-colored man threw his black dreams away. As his millionaire friend put it, becoming a black means throwing away life to the poverty, ignorance and the hopeless struggle of the black people. This statement clearly signifies the entire direction of the narration. The ex-colored man has chosen his path away from racial, so cial and economic discrimination to become a regular man who can move freely without any prejudice from the society. The narrative does not only signify the differences between the races, rather it gives us a realization that we, as humans, choose to side with the dominant culture in order to avoid the negative forces of the

The Ethnic Groups in Southeast Asia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Ethnic Groups in Southeast Asia - Essay Example But there are oral accounts in the form of folk tales, out of which some suggest that Burma is indeed their original home, but there are some folk tales which point towards their origin being China. The Karens have script of their own as well, which is often termed as 'chicken scratch script' because the script resembles the scratches made by the movement of a chicken when it moves on sand or soft soil. Smith (2003) stated that, "until the annexation of Burma in the nineteenth century, the Karens were largely a hill of forest-dwelling people without a written literature.as a result, the Karens appear as an ethnic group very much on the fringes of the recorded history." Myanmar has at least 15 major ethnic groups with Burman (Bamar) comprising about half the population. The population of Karen is the next highest with 6-7 million people. The last comprehensive census with ethnicity count was held in the year 1931, under the British Colonial government. Thereafter the Burmese government avoided the questions about separate ethnic identity (Bowles, 2000). Basically, the Karen tribe is known to be agriculturists, with Buddhism being the predominant religion amongst the tribe. A belief amongst the Karen tribe is that historically they have come from a place called "Thibi Kawbi". This is termed as their representation of Tibet and southern Gobi desert. As time passed, gradually during the 18th century, Karen began to move down south towards Thai Payap (old northern kingdom of Siam)1. The Karen tribe have been demanding an independent identity and land for them since early 1880s, with the formation of Karen National Association. At that time, Burma was under the colonial rule of Britain. After independence of Burma in January 1948, they tried to have a peaceful existence under the banner of Karen National Union (KNU), with some important posts in the government offered to Karen people. Situation started changing after the Military junta took over the country in 1960s. Subsequently, the demand for a separate land for Karen became more voc al. The military junta started adopting oppressive measures after it took over. As a result, a large number of Karen people were forced to leave their homes and fled into bordering Thailand with the result that many thousands of Karen are now living in Thailand, Australia and elsewhere as refugees. The strength of Karen fighters depleted with Burmese army declaring a full scale war against them in early 1990s and by 1995 the KNU headquarters at Manerplaw fell to Burmese army. Culture and Religion The brass rings around the necks of Karen tribe people are stated to be because of a number of reasons2. Some say it is done to prevent tigers from biting them; appears to be a credible defense, because the tiger prefers to pull the life out of a human being with a firm grip around the neck. Another version is that it is practiced to make women less attractive, so that there is less likelihood of them being captured by the slave traders. But, there is still another version which finds that this is being practiced to make women for attractive, so that they are able to attract a better husband. Besides the neck ring, large sized ear-rings also make an important component of the beauty products of the womenfolk. As the age of young girls increases the size

An operation management (ASDA -UK company) Essay

An operation management (ASDA -UK company) - Essay Example The intention of this study is ASDA as one of the biggest retailing companies in the UK and it is the major subsidiary corporation of Wal-Mart. It deals with several merchandise products comprising food, grocery, housing, and entertainment goods in their retail stores. In the year 2004, ASDA had almost 259 retail outlets and 19 storehouses throughout the UK. It captures significant amount of share of the market of the UK. As a major supermarket, ASDA confronts with numerous supply chain issues which need to be rectified in order to gain competitive advantage. Few problems were identified in the process of operations management of the company ASDA. One of the problems increasingly witnessed by the company was regarding the procedure of reverse logistics. The company has been stated to deal in a varied range of products, most of which entails consumable products. With regard to the kind of business that is conducted by the company, it can be understood that the concept and the process of reverse logistics form an integral part. The company was encountering certain problems in the management of the procedure with regard to the return of goods and products that are received from the customers to the suppliers as well as the manufacturers. ASDA was learnt to witness increased volumes related to returns of electrical products owing to the moderate returns guidelines. Thus, with the intention to deal with such returns in an effective, suitable and cost efficient method, the company requires to concentrate on a competent strategy related to reverse logistics. ... Understand the solutions to deal with the issues identified in ASDA Company Background ASDA is one of the biggest retailing companies in the UK and it is the major subsidiary corporation of Wal-Mart. It deals with several merchandise products comprising food, grocery, housing, and entertainment goods in their retail stores. In the year 2004, ASDA had almost 259 retail outlets and 19 storehouses throughout the UK. It captures significant amount of share of the market of the UK. As a major supermarket, ASDA confronts with numerous supply chain issues which need to be rectified in order to gain competitive advantage (Corporate Watch UK, 2004). Problem Number 1 Reverse Logistics Few problems were identified in the process of operations management of the company ASDA. One of the problems increasingly witnessed by the company was regarding the procedure of reverse logistics. The company has been stated to deal in a varied range of products, most of which entails consumable products. With r egard to the kind of business that is conducted by the company, it can be understood that the concept and the process of reverse logistics form an integral part. The company was encountering certain problems in the management of the procedure with regard to the return of goods and products that are received from the customers to the suppliers as well as the manufacturers. ASDA was learnt to witness increased volumes related to returns of electrical products owing to the moderate returns guidelines. Thus, with the intention to deal with such returns in an effective, suitable and cost efficient method, the company requires to concentrate on a competent strategy related to reverse logistics. The reverse logistics plan of the company would require controlling the flow related to the products

Congress and Global Warming Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Congress and Global Warming Policy - Essay Example These two geographical areas are engaged in economic activities from which they earn their living. The people living in these regions are represented by elected and nominated legislators sent to the two houses to promote their welfare. Some of these members are funded by - individuals, companies, for-profits, and non-profits - organizations to the legislative houses. Therefore, these groups sometimes influence the nomination of these representatives and senators and may influence a candidate to be defeated.Theregionsdependent on tourism and conservation of the environment would want the gasses emissions to be reduced to protect the environment. However, individuals engaged in production that pollutes the environment would wish to continue their economic activity, oblivious to the fact that they are damaging the environment. Therefore, it is very difficult to find a common ground on addressing global warming because whatever measures were taken to control global warming would affect t he livelihoods of the American citizens.ConclusionCongress should find a consensus on issues about the conservation of the environment. Being the house that formulates policies, it should come up with a common playing field that would restrict carbon emissions that cause global warming while at the same time providing incentives for adopting resolutions. It should formulate policies that will compel the government to invest heavily in environmentally friendly options that would reduce the global warming effect.

English as a Foreign or Second Language Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

English as a Foreign or Second Language - Essay Example As a student it becomes even more difficult to survive and mange oneself in a totally new environment because the student is new to the country and he has no one known to him and if he is unable to talk in the language of the people of the country in which he is living then he will be left all alone and there would be no one to communicate or talk with him. In order to avoid oneself form such difficulty it is better to learn the language. For a student it is of utmost importance that he is well aware and has good command over the language of the teachers so that he can understand what is being taught to him. If the student does not have good command over the language of the country in which he is studying then he will have to face some major problems because he will not be able to understand what the teachers are teaching, he also will not be able to comprehend the talks of the students and the student would become very confused and depressed. In most of the universities the medium o f instruction is English. In fact English has become an international language. English has now become the language of most of the people and in many countries the medium of instruction in many universities is English because it has become an international language. But still in some countries like most of the Arab countries, Japan and China the medium of instruction in their universities is their own mother tongue. Students from such countries have to face a lot of difficulty when they move to other foreign countries for continuing their studies further because the students are not at all habitual of studying and communicating in English. For such students and students particularly from the Arab countries like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, etc. it becomes a necessity to learn English so that they do not have to face any difficulty living in the foreign country with the foreign people. The students from the Arab countries like me find it extremely difficult to learn English as it is complet ely different form the native language of the Arab countries; our mother tongue, Arabic. English and Arabic are two different languages which are completely diverse form each other. The origins and basic linguistics of the two languages are completely different from each other. This is the reason why we students find it extremely difficult to learn English. The pronunciation and accent of both the languages are widely different that is why even the Arab students speak English they face quite difficulty in speaking out the words with the correct pronunciation. As a result we students find it very difficult to adjust them in the new environment where everyone else is speaking English and the person can neither speak proper English nor understand it completely. We students find it really difficult to manage with this difficulty. The areas where students face greatest difficulty is when the students are made to focus on the vocabulary and grammar. Grammar of any language is difficult to learn and understand. And when someone foreign is learning a foreign language then it becomes really difficult to learn and understand the grammar and make use of it in sentences. The foreign students also have to face a lo

Congress and Global Warming Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Congress and Global Warming Policy - Essay Example These two geographical areas are engaged in economic activities from which they earn their living. The people living in these regions are represented by elected and nominated legislators sent to the two houses to promote their welfare. Some of these members are funded by - individuals, companies, for-profits, and non-profits - organizations to the legislative houses. Therefore, these groups sometimes influence the nomination of these representatives and senators and may influence a candidate to be defeated.Theregionsdependent on tourism and conservation of the environment would want the gasses emissions to be reduced to protect the environment. However, individuals engaged in production that pollutes the environment would wish to continue their economic activity, oblivious to the fact that they are damaging the environment. Therefore, it is very difficult to find a common ground on addressing global warming because whatever measures were taken to control global warming would affect t he livelihoods of the American citizens.ConclusionCongress should find a consensus on issues about the conservation of the environment. Being the house that formulates policies, it should come up with a common playing field that would restrict carbon emissions that cause global warming while at the same time providing incentives for adopting resolutions. It should formulate policies that will compel the government to invest heavily in environmentally friendly options that would reduce the global warming effect.

Discuss how three or more important symbols add to your understanding of Of Mice and Men Essay Example for Free

Discuss how three or more important symbols add to your understanding of Of Mice and Men Essay In Of Mice and Men, John Steinbeck portrays messages to the reader through various techniques, including the vivid animal imagery presented throughout the novella, most notably in Chapters 1 and 6. However, his most potent form of message conveying is through his use of symbolism. Interweaving light imagery and exercising characters as symbols into the text furthers the development of integral themes and plotlines throughout the turbulent story. From the deep and green Salinas River to the right hand that had held the gun, Steinbecks utilization of symbols contributes to the readers overall appreciation of the chaotic book, highlighting recurring themes such as loneliness. As was stated in the introduction, Steinbeck employs characters as symbols. The most familiar example of this is old Candy. Candy is a significant figure in Of Mice and Men, due to the likenesses between him and George. I aint much good with ony one handthats why they give me a job swampin, Candy explains to George. As a swamper, this is all Candy has left. In 1930s America, a worker who could not work to his full potential, especially during the time of the Depression, would be replaced- Candys ultimate fear. Thats why he wants to cook and tend the chickens and hoe the garden some on Lennie and Georges land. Candy can lead a safe life, not having to worry about being canned. Candys stumped wrist is a result of an accident on the ranch. Candy is a prime example of being caught in the Migrant Workers Cycle- moving to one job, before leaving and moving somewhere else. A link can therefore be established with George, and Lennie, who appear to have been traveling around working before the time of Of Mice and Men. This is another case of the cyclic nature of the novella, and a reflection of the American way of life in the 1930s. Another example of Candys symbolic nature is with his ancient dog. This [Candy and his dog] is the first relationship in the novella to be broken, with the final bond, George and Lennie, being destroyed at the climax. No, he said softly. No, I couldn do that. I had im too long,' explains Candy in Chapter 3, referring to the idea of killing his dog. This is very similar to George who, despite knowing Lennie will only cause grief to him and those around him, does not want to hurt him, because he too has been with his companion for a long time. Candy explains that, I been around him so much I never notice how he stinks, while George earlier says, but you get used to goin around with a guy an you cant get rid of him.'- Another likeness between the two. George has his own dog, Lennie, who follows George around, maintaining silence in conversations and growing increasingly dependent on a master. During the novella, the recurrence of loneliness, and speculating at a lonesome finale, is ever present, especially in the form of playing cards. The bunkhouse is often the scene of the games, with George the dealer. This is significant, as George frequently exclaims his desire to be alone, If I was alone I could live so easy. However, solitude is Georges enemy, and he is fearful at the prospect of living alone. This is projected through his card playing, Slim sat downacross from GeorgeHe studied the solitaire hand that was upside-down to him. Inadvertently, George has dealt a game of solitaire- a single player game, an insinuation at the conclusion of the story, when George ultimately kills his companion. A similar event arises when Candys dog is led by Carlson to be shot. Anybody like to play a little euchre?' asks George. The key theme of loneliness is being forced away by George, who refuses to be alone, opting to ask the group to play cards. The constant reminding of impending solitude, and its effects, enable the reader to understand and fully interpret the inevitability of what is to come. Hands play a vital role in the symbolism of Of Mice and Men. There are various references to the hands of men, building up to the climatic noting, right hand that had held the gun. Despite the assortment of quotes in relation to hands, each has its own meaning. Georges right hand is the killing hand that seals his isolation in the world. Candys lack of a hand, accompanied by persistent referencing to his handicap, Candy stood in the doorway scratching his bald wrist, provides a stark reminder of the perils of working in 1930s America, stressing the importance of staying healthy. If an illness or injury affected the work rate of a person, they were often removed from their job- a brusque feature of Capitalism. The contextual relevance expands the fluency of the text for the reader, as the framework for the 1930s American society is commonly paralleled with the novella. With regards to Curley, his gloves fulla Vaseline, which hes keepin soft for his wife. This is one of many sexual references regarding Curleys wife, who regularly symbolizes the contextual attraction of whorehouses and prostitutes to the migrant workers. As stated above, Curleys wifes character is sharply familiarized with prostitutes and the brothels of the 1930s American society. Her flirtatious nature is met with an everlasting disapproval from the workers on the ranch Candy thinks, Curleys marrieda tart, who, got the eye, referring to her engaging character. However, in a letter to Miss Luce, the actress who plays Curleys wife in the play version of the text, Steinbeck explains, She is a nice, kind girl and not a floozy. According to Steinbeck, she is a little starved. She knows utterly nothing about sex except the mass of misinformation girls tell one another. From this, we can deduce that Curleys wife isnt a Looloo, and she isnt likely to be found in Old Susys Place, but due to the fact Curley and her have not consummated their marriage, she feels an object to men no man has considered her as anything except a girl to try to make. Curleys wife, Steinbeck explains, is a nice person, and knows the only way men will notice her is if she is desirable. In Of Mice and Men, Curleys wife experiences loneliness, due to neglect from Curley, and she confesses this to Lennie, Aint I got a right to talk to nobody?' Since no one has tried talking to her, Curleys wife has not proved to be anything more than a floozy, which explains the unpleasant behaviour towards her. It is interesting that, when Candy calls her a tart, there is a pause, as if to suggest caution. Further along in the conversation, Candy asks, You wont tell Curley nothing I said? This implies that Candy is afraid Curley will learn of what he has been saying, as the ranch is the only work hell ever acquire, due to his old age and handicap. The threat of Curleys wife to the workers intimidates them to the point of obeying her. Steinbecks pointed description of how Curleys wife flagrantly flirts with the other workers is a repetition of the theme, which he has earlier shown, using the brothels and his showing of the women who work in them as being mere objects. It is almost as if Curleys wife believes that the only way to get by in life is to be like those women in the brothel, and to offer herself as an object. This is the case in Chapter 4, when Crooks coldly exclaims, You got no right comin in a coloured mans room. Curleys wife uses her position as the boss sons wife, and her contextual superiority over the Negro to threaten him, I could get you strung up on a tree so easy it aint even funny. This is threatening to Crooks, as one simple cry of Rape will result in a lynching. Curleys wife also knows that, despite the harmful comments made by the men on the ranch, she holds a distinct advantage over them Curleys pretty handy. Curley could beat the worker, and get them fired, due to his position as the bo ss son. All but two of the workers fear Curley Slim, Slimwas scowlingYou lay offa me,' and Carlson Ill kick your god-damn head off.' Curleys wife, therefore, can target the remainder of the men, and flirt with them, to further her position. This goes horribly wrong when she begins to pursue Lennie. Firstly, she re-establishes her coyness through Lennies dream, Well if thats all you want, I might get a couple rabbits myself.' Then, in the barn house, she looks, closely at Lennie to see whether she was impressing him, another instance where she is trying to leave her mark on a worker. Curleys wife seals her own fate by exclaiming, Mine [Hair] is soft and finefeel right here.' This is the last stage of Curleys wifes seduction physical contact. She has seen for herself that Lennie likes to pet things, and she foolishly bids Lennie to stroke her hair, knowing full well he will. Lennie strokes too hard, and she flops like a fish. Steinbeck purposefully repeats this simile, as this has been used when Lennie crushes Curleys hand. This shared simile between the married couple suggests similar characteristics between the two most notably the volatile tempers of the two, Whats the matter with me? she cried. As the novella was written in 1930s America, the contextual content would be ever-present. However, coming off of the Depression, the American Dream had been damaged. This is highlighted by Curleys wife, I never got that letter, referring to her failed career as an actress. He says he was gonna put me in the movies. Says I was a natural. This is a prime example of the American Dream a nobody becoming a somebody. However, as with the Depression and many lives in America, this Dream was shattered So I married Curley, almost as if she married him to anger her mother, I always thought my ol lady stole it.' Curleys wife can be classed as the Depression itself the ender of dreams. The Depression ended the American Dream (Curleys wifes dream), as well as other peoples in Of Mice and Men, Curleys wife also ends Lennie and Georges dream, by enticing Lennie, which led to her death, and the end of the Dream. Putting this into reality, these small symbolizations, such as Curleys wife ending Lennie and Georges dream, enhances the understanding of the novel, as the main contextual features are evidently clear, assisted by Steinbecks geographical knowledge of the area Steinbeck was raised in the California area, and he worked on a farm the descriptions of the landscape would therefore be accurate, blurring the line between fact and fiction. One of the most effective symbols that Steinbeck employs to the novel is that of animal imagery. Throughout the novel, Lennie is likened to a bear, due to numerous references, sloping shoulders; and he walked heavily, dragging his feet a little, the way a bear drags his paws. The bear-like stance of Lennie suggests his ferocity and power aid him, but he is clumsy, and prone to attack, a true reflection of Lennies character. In the opening and final chapters in the novella, the moods are very different, yet similar. The evocative beginnings to each chapter contain repetition of the deep green pool of the Salinas River, whilst both being disrupted by man. The most significant part about these openings is the disposition of the disturbance in Chapter 1, the rabbits hurried noiselessly for cover, whilst in Chapter 6, Lennies intrusion is as silent as a creeping bear moves, yet another reference to his bear-like stature. However, the most potent form of animal imagery is when it is used in a prefigurative sense. In Chapter 1, A stilted heron laboured up into the air and pounded down-river. In Chapter 6, the heron reappears, A silent head and beak lanced down and plucked it out by the head, andswallowed the little snake. This is a foreshadowing of the events to follow, where George shoots Lennie in the back of the head. Steinbecks manipulation of his short story permits him to substitute ordinary characters and plots with complex, contextual symbolism. This is used to great effect, and enhances the readers understanding of the text, which allows a broader knowledge of both the book and the milieu in which it was written.

Constructing Flyovers At Sri Lankan Traffic Jammed Areas Construction Essay

Constructing Flyovers At Sri Lankan Traffic Jammed Areas Construction Essay An efficient transport network is the backbone of a healthy economy. As SriLankans most of our productivity is lost due to the inefficient and congested road network. One of the recent additions for traffic management and to alleviate congestion in colombo city and its suburbs has been the introduction of flyovers at important intersections of the main road corridors. The main function of a flyover is the separation of conflicting traffic movements thereby minimizing conflicts by using the vertical space. Therefore, it is assumed to cause less impact to the adjacent properties and the existing infrastructure. However, this depends on the type of flyover and the traffic pattern at the junction. 2. The efficiency of the recently introduced flyovers in the suburbs of the city of colombo can be tested by comparing before and after conditions of important traffic engineering parameters. It is also important to analyze the congestion level at the intersection and its significance compared to the entire road system. Basically the speed and the system capacity can be compared as main considerations to test this at a particular location. Moreover, the benefits and cost of a flyover against other reasonable and alternatives to obtain a similar result should be taken in to consideration and evaluated. In this research has attempted to compare the economic benefits of introducing flyovers against other short term and long term alternatives. The possible solutions available both from traffic and transport aspects are also widely discussed in my research. 3. The first of the series of large scale flyovers introduced to Sri Lanka recently are located across main railway lines in and around colombo. The first of these was a concrete cantilever type flyover in Ragama. This was constructed in 1996 in order to avoid the delay caused by the railway gate closures at the main line. A second flyover was completed along the baseline Road area. Dematagoda which was also across the main railway line in year 2000 to prevent the stagnation of vehicles on the Base line road. This was a 6 lane viaduct (culvert) type concrete structure. The 3rd flyover, which is a steel structure, was constructed in 2008 at Kelaniya within a record period of just 66 days; this was also to avoid the delay from the main railway line across the colombo-Kandy Road. The main purpose for the construction of all these flyovers was to reduce delays caused to vehicle traffic due to the closures of rail gates and reduction of accidents. 4. The latest flyover was constructed at Nugegoda junction in 2009. This is the first flyover at a road intersection, constructed in order to reduce intersection delays in Nugegoda. This too is a steel structure. 5. From the above details we could basically divide flyovers in SriLanka in to two main categories, a. Those across railway lines (railway overpasses) and b. those across road intersections resulting in grade separations. 6. The comparisons of key performance factors such as speed, safety, and economic cost with or without the flyover can be analyzed for both categories. Also, the economic viability of each category could be tested by comparing the cost and the benefits of the design life of each flyover. Selection of the type of flyover and its design are also of interest. In this respect, the comparison between cost, life time, possibility of land use, space utilization as well as the visual and function impacts on the area would be considered as being relevant decision making parameters for the selection of the type of flyover. CHAPTER TWO METHODOLOGY AIM The aim of this research is to identify and analyze the issues related the construction of flyovers at the traffic jammed areas in colombo district, How to improve finds the achievements and drawbacks being available in the flyovers. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 2. The growth of population, economy and as a result of the prevailing economic policy, the number of motor transport is increasing daily but the road network has not developed in such a manner to cater for the increasing requirement creating a great impact on the growth of our economy. Similarly the inefficiency of public passenger transportation combines together with this, as it is the mode of travel used by the general public for day to day activities. 3. Moreover Improvements to Public Transportation can reduce traffic congestion by attracting car and other motorized users to bus and train transportation hence can contribute to the economy in long term by reduce fuel consumption, efficient use of road and vehicle fleet, reduced accidents, etc. Increasing of private motorized vehicles by widening and improving more capacity to it will create further problems to the traffic environment in future. Hence, the concern of more tax and quota system to reduce vehicle ownership will help to reduce the vehicle growth rate. But at the same time government should improve public transportation to satisfactorily for the convenience of all users. 4. On the other hand very expensive infrastructure will negatively impact to the economy of a country as they lose the power for expenditure to other important needs at the same time hence the inflation rate would be unbearable if they are already have economic crisis. Therefore, injection of local funding to huge infrastructure which will produce marginal benefits is a waste for a nation. However, the flyovers also can be constructed using reinforced concrete structures too at lower cost than steel structure presented at placed in Colombo these days. THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 5. It is hypothesized that construction of flyovers at the traffic jammed areas as this is the best remedy for the issue, in this context there is no such requirement for add more kilometers to our road network. SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH 6. This research paper examines the lapses in the road network, one of the most recent traffic management methods, Improvements to Public Transportation can reduce traffic congestion and public passenger transportation at present, on its maintenance and existence, and how it affects the economy of our country and the ways available to overcome the problem effectively. METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION 7. The data for the research is collected both from primary and secondary sources. Primary data The Primary data has been collected from 40 samples in colombo district. Secondary data The data required for the research collected from the secondary sources with relevant Books, RDA/UDA Specialized personals and the Internet utilized. LIMITATION OF THE RESEARCH 8. My Limitation is Primary data was collected mainly from questionnaires, it is assumed in the information is 100% correct. Forty consumer of flyover were selected for the study. This also is a limitation in the generalization of the result. GLOBAL EXPERIENCES WITH FLYOVERS 1. Flyovers have been assumed to be an ultimate solution for traffic congestion in the congested cities of developing countries. Large number of flyovers has been constructed in our country in last few years. However, the actual performance of such flyovers is debatable when considering the overall impact to other transport functions such as pedestrian facilities, visual aesthetics and business developments in the locality. There is a strong public perception that flyovers have solved or will solve traffic problems in metropolitan areas.   Therefore, there is no apparent resistance from the public, media, politicians and administrators when flyovers are constructed.   The only resistance comes from the few that are adversely affected, for example, owners/tenants of business establishments, residents and civil institutions.   In response they are often criticized for not being socially conscientious and for being anti-development  since they usually cannot justify their own re asons from a professional point of view and there is no support for them even if hundreds of thousands may even suffer from the adverse effects of such developments.   The position that the interests and convenience of society at large over the inconvenience or losses to a few are often ignored in many countries.   There appears to be no counter to such arguments since there is indeed some logic and truth to it. 2. It has in fact been shown that the convenience of a flyover mainly occurs only during the non-peak hours of traffic flow.   For example, during non-peak hours well-designed at-grade intersections like those in all present flyovers are doing fine as it is only in peak hours that flyovers have a slight advantage. The convenience is also felt only in 2 directions of traffic flow out of a possible 12 directions at an intersection.   These misconceptions have had a great influence on the publics mind that flyovers indeed solve all traffic problems at intersections.   Only in-depth analysis and engineering computations can counter this influence.  For example, our country and in developing countries are examining possibilities of introducing toll systems to recover the huge cost of these flyovers. However there are difficulties in implementing such methods due to the lack of space for toll booths and also the difficulty of imposing this to the users who only have marginal benefits from a single facility within the overall road infrastructure. 3. The experience of our country and in developing countries is that flyovers have not given the anticipated benefits for developing cities. Moreover this has been considered as a threat to the urban architecture as well as the accessibility within the city. Common complaints regarding flyovers are the negligence of public transport, transit facilities, and pedestrian facilities. STUDY AREA 4. In the colombo suburban area there are four flyovers of recent origin. The three (04) railway flyovers namely at Dematagoda, Ragama, Dehiwala and the recently constructed at Pattiya Junction in Kiribathgoda are included in this study Figure 01. The Nugegoda flyover is at a road intersection. This too is included to be discussed separately. The data required for the research collected from the secondary sources with relevant Books, RDA/UDA Specialized personnel and the Internet utilized. ANALYSIS 6. The analysis is carried out under two categories namely flyover performance at road intersection and flyover across the railway lines. FLYOVERS AT ROAD INTERSECTION 7. The travel time data of all the turnings including the through traffic on the flyover at Nugegoda intersection were used to calculate the average (daily average) speed and delay at each approach of road links (Figure 02). Figure 02: Travel Time Survey at Nugegoda Intersection with Flyover 8. The average two way traffic flow speed on each 100 meters segment of all four road approaches (up to 2km) of the Nugegoda flyover. The average speed of road links other than on the flyover includes the signal delay too. 9. It was observed from the above analysis that flyovers at railway crossings give higher benefits when compared to that of road intersections. The comparison of basic values indicates that concrete flyovers are better than that of steel structures. This is evident when the life time and the maintenance of the two types of flyovers are compared. Even though the economic analysis was done for 20 years, the concrete structures can last for more than 50 years without many repairs on it. Therefore the benefits of concrete structures are much more than those indicated in this analysis. 10. The flyover at Nugegoda intersection designed for 20 years. According to the travel time survey data, this flyover indicates the lowest savings. It also has the highest per lane km cost. However, the signalization with improvements to approach links of the intersection as an alternative to the flyover indicates very well. 11. It was observed that the flyover or signalization alone does not solve the traffic congestion at an intersection but that it also needs capacity improvements of approach links for an improvement at that intersection. It can be observed that most of the intersection approaches are often blocked by parked vehicles and other activities such as uncontrolled pedestrian movements and temporary businesses on the walkways. Therefore it is often seen that the existing road infrastructures in urban areas are not properly utilized. The capacity of road links and the intersection can be improved by enhanced traffic management strategies. NEW FLYOVERS PLANNED BUT LACK PROPER PEDESTRIAN WALKWAYS 12. It has come into the notice of the Srilanka that in order to improve the transport system the Srilanka government has planned plenty of routines. Integrated multimodal transport system, will play a prominent part in offering an effective public transport service and hopefully will reduce private vehicles. 13. All in all, the main focus is on the development of more roads and more effective mass transportation. Though, there is no emphasis on the common man- the pedestrian- and his requirement for safe problem free movement space. 14. There is no doubt in my mind that with steady increase in the numbers of cars and footpaths, pedestrian space in the colombo city has become increasingly marginalized. In other word, the footpath was meant to be a place for the common man to walk upon and did not belong to the owner of plots adjoining the access road. 15. Theoretically speaking, roads have been widened in Srilanka and flyovers have been built in all the major cities of the country without offering safe and convenient facilities for pedestrian to cross over. The requirement for adequate pedestrian space is an absolute must especially in places where large number of people gets together such as in neighborhood markets and shopping centers specially Dehiwala. 16. Unfortunately, here also, the focus seems to be on providing for the movement of vehicles and the parking of cars. Shoppers dodge their way around moving cars, three-wheelers, motorcycles and accidents are frequent and common. Despite this traders have continued to resist the pedestrianisation of shopping streets fearing loss of business. TRANSPORTABLE ROADWORK TRAFFIC SIGNAL SYSTEM TRAFFIC-RELATED Low-cost traffic signal system for one-way alternating traffic. Easy to control, clearly organized at a glance. Universal in use with power cable, Telephone cable and others. All signal heads uniformity and simple. MODES OF OPERATION: Automatic fixed time mode Automatic green time extension Automatic green on demand All-red in cable and radio mode Manual operation from every signal head possible in cable and radio mode FLYOVER CONSTRUCTION 17. Recent traffic counts have shown that there are in excess of 30,000 vehicles using the roundabout daily at colombo area. The straight-through movement between the east and west sides off the South Ring Road was the highest recorded traffic movement at the roundabout and represents approximately 40% of the total traffic using the roundabout. There was an urgent need for grade separation. 18. Effective traffic management throughout the duration of the project was vital as the same volume of vehicles used the roundabout during construction as they did before construction. From public opinion, traffic management was put in place effectively and major delays were rare. CHAPTER FOUR IDENTIFY MAJOR ISSUES AND DIFFICULTIES UPLIFTING EXISTING ROAD NETWORK AND IDENTIFY EFFECTS SUPPLY AND DEMAND WIDENING WORKS UNDERWAY ON THE WAY TO INCREASE THE NUMBER OF LANES. 1. Congestion can be reduced by either increasing road capacity (supply), or by reducing traffic (demand). Capacity can be increased in a number of ways, but needs to take account of hidden demands otherwise it may be used more strongly than anticipated. Critics of the approach of adding capacity have compared it to inducing demand that did not exist before. Reducing road capacity has in turn been attacked as removing free choice as well as increasing travel costs and times. INCREASED SUPPLY CAN INCLUDE: Adding more capacity at bottlenecks (such as by adding more lanes at the expense of parking/harden type shoulders or safety zones, or by removing local obstacles like bridge supports and widening tunnels) Adding more capacity over the whole of a route (generally by adding more lanes) Creating new routes Traffic management improvements REDUCTION OF DEMAND CAN INCLUDE: Vehicle parking or non parking restrictions. Vehicle park or no parking (Ride) facilities allowing parking at a distance and allowing continuation by private and commercial transport or selected lane. Reduction of road capacity to force traffic onto other ways and modes. Road entering fees (Southern highway) charging money for access onto a road/specific area at certain times, congestion levels or for certain road users. Road reserve area, where regulatory restrictions prevent certain types of vehicles from driving under certain circumstances or in certain areas. Rule/Policy approaches, which usually attempt to provide either strategic alternatives or which encourage greater usage of existing alternatives through promotion, subsidies or restrictions. TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT 2. Global positioning system (GPS) devices are used to determine global locations points, which are measured and recorded as Longitude (E), Latitude (S), and Elevation/Altitude (meters above sea level). Anyway before commencement of a GPS survey must be required checklist. Traffic monitoring, via radio, GPS or possibly mobile type phones, to advise road users. Fluctuate type message installed along the roadway, to advise road users. Navigation or clear identifying system possibly linked up to automatic traffic reporting. Traffic monitoring / analyzing permanently installed, to provide real-time traffic counts. Road traffic monitoring/Analysis, to provide information on highway. Computerized highway system, a future idea which could reduce the safe interval between cars (required for braking in emergencies) and increase highway capacity by as much as 100% while increasing travel speeds. Parking area and guidance with information systems providing dynamic advice to motorists about free parking. Active vehicle controlling (Critical situation) system hard area (Parking, bus halt) as an extra traffic lane, it uses CCTV and monitor the traffics use of the extra lane. OTHER ASSOCIATED 3. Other associated are, School time (Start/End) arranged to avoid busy time traffic. Driving behavior promotion and enforcement moreover driving practices, frequent lane such as security or school hrs etc changes can reduce a roads capacity and exacerbate jams. Visual/Sound barriers such as horn CGR gate bell ringing etc; to prevent drivers from slowing down out of curiosity. Condition of speed reductions, showing speed limit, humps etc with lower speeds allowing cars to drive closer together, this increases the capacity of a road. 4. Moreover where space-efficient vehicles, usually motor bike, three-wheels and cars ride or drive in the allocated space between cars, buses, and trucks specially peek hrs. This is however illegal in many countries as it is perceived as a safety risk. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES DURING THE FLYOVER Acceptable and accepted only rail borne modes can in practice get people out of cars. Smooth no violent movements vertically, laterally, or backwards/forwards. Comfortable Re-assuring tram lines (New proposal year 2009 but not succeeded) give confidence that service operates. Safe many times safer than vehicle travel. Speedy short journey times can be achieve. Compatible with pedestrians in pedestrianised areas. Clean and green enhances the environment no emissions at street level. Avoids traffic congestion through segregation and priority. 5. Roads including highways with grade separation generally allow traffic to move freely, with fewer interruptions, and at higher overall speeds; this is why speed limits are typically higher for grade-separated roads. In addition, less conflict between traffic movements reduces the capacity for accidents. Motorways, though having higher average speeds, usually have much lower accident rates per distance traveled than roads which are not grade separated. 6. However, grade-separated junctions are very space-intensive, complicated, and costly, due to the need for large physical structures such as tunnels, ramps, and bridges. Their height can be obtrusive, and this, combined with the large traffic volumes that grade-separated roads attract, tends to make them unpopular to nearby landowners and residents. New grade-separated road plans can receive significant opposition from local groups for these reasons. 7. Rail-over-rail grade separations take up less space than road grade separations, because shoulders are not needed, there are generally fewer branches and side road connections to accommodate (because a partial grade separation will accomplish more improvement than for a road), and because at-grade railway connections often take up significant space on their own. However, they require significant engineering effort, and are very expensive and time-consuming to construct. 8. Rail-over-road grade separations require very little additional space because no connections need be built, but require significant engineering effort and are expensive and time-consuming to construct above. 9. Many closures from 1990 to 2010 happened, and many people thought that it was the beginning of the Colombo, Galle, Kandy vehicles, but the situation changed after 1990. Large number of automobiles started creating pollution and smog. High rising of petrol diesel in international market also thought people that petrol running automobile is far worse than electricity driven street rail. ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE 10. Under this topic road infrastructure can be improve under this conditions, Grade or type separation, using bridges (or, less often, tunnels) freeing movements from having to stop for other crossing movements. congested motorway-type roadway. Reducing junctions (1) Providing through lanes that bypass junction on-ramp and off-ramp zones (Except highway access) (2) A grade access road, roads that limit the type and amounts of way along their lengths. REVERSIBLE TYPE LANES 11. Considering the day today, certain sections of highway operate in the opposite direction on different times of the day or days of the week. SEPARATE LANES 12. Separate lanes for specific user groups, Public bus ways, Pedestrians (High occupancy vehicle lane) URBAN PLANNING AND DESIGN 13. Urban planning and city planning (UDA/NHDA planning) practices can have a huge impact on levels of future traffic congestion, though they are of limited relevance for short-term change. Grid type plan (Interconnect system) including road network geometry, rather than tree-like system which reduce local traffic, but increase total distances driven and discourage walking by reducing connectivity. Zoning laws that encourage development under mixed type, which reduces distances between residential, commercial, and recreational destinations (and encourage cycling and walking) The development is residential and commercial areas designed to maximize access to public transport. THOUGHTS ON URBAN PLANNING AND DESIGN 14. A well-developed transportation system plays a great role for any country of the world to develop and it remains so for our country also. The country has developed up to a certain extent throughout the time but the transportation has not, to cater for the increasing demand. On our journey for development this has to be the primary area to be considered. It is not only a responsibility of the government but also depends on the attitude of the people. The government also has the responsibility to put a genuine effort for this other than going only for political achievements and thereby should give priority for the development of this area. 15. When I made the interview RDA and UDA expertise they are said that we have done researches and given most economical and the feasible methods to develop this area but we dont know how it is going to be done due to non availability of funds and facilities 16. The above economic analysis is carried out considering only the volume of transport savings based on a travel time survey at each flyover location. A comprehensive study could have been carried out to test the situation more accurately if the respective data sources had been available. 17. However, this is a good strategy for eliminating the delay at railway crossings as a long term consideration. Also the concrete flyovers across railways are more economical than the steel bridges constructed in a very short period. CHAPTER FIVE ANALYSIS 1. My Analysis was done in the area of Nugegoda, one of the closest towns to the Colombo city. Questionnaire was prepared and distributed among all age groups. The sample size is 40 personnel and all responded with their identity. Figure 01 2. My 2nd observation was made to find out how many people (from 40 personnel sample) are using flyovers and how often they use it. According to Figure 02 it has been observed that more than 65% persons are using flyovers daily and they feel the difference between the previous and the current situation of the time saving. Figure 02 3. My 3rd observation was made to find out who are the majority using this flyovers. It has been observed that there is more than 60% personnel are the users of public transports. Following details in Figure 03 were taken according to the observations made. Figure 03 4. My next observation shows in figure 04 and Figure 5, Average serving time per a journey Vs person. According to chart it says that the actual time period is very less comparing before situation. According to research 90% time saved. As a result air pollution, Diesel/petrol consumption, Police man power, Vehicle wastage etc minimize proportionally. Figure 04 Figure 5 Finally, during the research, my hypothesis was proved, because the majority stated that construction of flyovers where the traffic jammed areas are the best remedy for the issue. CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS TO OVERCOME THE CRISIS 1. In order to minimize the city traffic congestion, the authorities have only handful of options. The highly effective solutions practice in other countries as follows.. a. Controlling traffic using methodical light system, b. Directing traffic through one direction of the full carriageway. c. Controlling traffic with the aid of authorized personnel (police men) d. Construction of flyovers. In Sri Lanka the respective authorities has constructed six flyovers at highly congested areas in Colombo suburbs. These locations were selected according the statistical surveys carried out by the experts in this field. However, it is inevitable that this effort has not succeeded in few locations as anticipated. Hence, during this research, I developed an argument to justify that the construction of flyovers are the best remedy for this issue by obtaining the opinion from the general public as my target group. This is the target group for early surveys carried out by the RDA in conjunction with University of Moratuwa to justify the construction of flyovers in Colombo suburbs as well. 2. A well developed transportation system plays a great role for any country of the world. The country has developed up to a certain extent throughout the time but the transportation has not sufficient to cater for the increasing demand of Road network. The construction of many flyovers in our most needed area, responsibility of the government but also depends on the attitude of the people especially all drivers and pedestrians. The also should give their fullest support to the current rules and regulations. 3. During the research, my hypothesis was proved, because the majority stated that construction of flyovers where the traffic jammed areas are the best remedy for the issue. 4. After carrying out a survey and analyzing the data, the following are the details of identified benefits and summarized as follows. Avoids traffic congestion through segregation and priority Speedy shortens journey times Smooth no violent movements vertically, laterally, or backwards/forwards Comfortable Compatible with pedestrians in giving pedestrianised areas Reduces the capacity for accidents 5. Moreover in this survey and analyzing the data, the few limitation and barriers identified as follows; Complicated, and costly, due to the need for large physical structures and for maintenance Their height can be obtrusive. c. Require a significant engineering and time-consuming to construct. 6. It has come into the notice of the urban planers that in order to improve the transport system a multi modal approach should be made. All in all, the main focus is on the development of more roads and more effective mass transportation. Priority should be given to the commuter and his requirement for a safe problem free movement space. 7. Finally, according to collected primary/secondary data. Following actions can be taken to minimizing traffic jammed. Without any delay some facts are presently available and not to standard. Banning of All On-Street Parking for Vehicles in City Limits Traffic Signal Lights Introduction of Substitute Roads to Main Roads Widening of roads Restriction of Slow Moving Traffic and Heavy Vehicles During Rush Hours Separating Pedestrians from Active Traffic Flow Proper maintenance of roads- specially culvert and rainy period road situation required quickly repairing system Creating driving discipline presently available new driving licence card entering system Implementation of New Highways Connecting Main Cities of The Country Electronic Traffic Monitoring Systems for Main Cities specially actual road jammed persons rules violated persons capturing part Discouraging Individual Vehicles Entering Cities (Peak hours container, tractor etc) Bus Stands (Required up lift and move to main road) Construction Work (Required combined worked force (RDA/UDA/CEB/NWSDB) 8. During the last decades the country has developed immensely; therefore the alternative methods to control traffic congestion are highly essential because of the increasing of the vehicles. The government also has the responsibility to put a genuine effort for this other than going onl